Cork City Air Quality Strategy

Clean Air City

Cork City Council Air Quality Strategy 2021 – 2026 July 2021

CONTENTS

Executive Summary...................................................................................................1

1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................2 » 1.1 Context....................................................................................................... 2 » 1.2 Scope of the Strategy............................................................................. 2 » 1.3 Collaboration with Stakeholders. ........................................................ 2 » 1.4 Sources of Air Pollution in Cork City.................................................. 3 » 1.4.1 Nitrogen Oxides (NO X )................................................................................... 3 » 1.4.2 Particulate Matter (PM 1 , PM 2.5 and PM 10 ).................................................. 3 » 1.4.3 Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2 ).....................................................................................4 » 1.4.4 Ozone (O 3 )..........................................................................................................4 » 1.4.5 Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP)....................................................................................4 » 1.5 Health Impacts of Air Pollution ........................................................... 4 » 1.5.1 Air Pollution and Disease.............................................................................. 5 » 1.5.2 Air Pollution and COVID-19........................................................................... 6 » 1.6 Economic Impacts .................................................................................. 6 » 1.7 Environmental Impacts ......................................................................... 7 2. LEGISLATIVE AND POLICY FRAMEWORK.......................................................8 » 2.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 8 » 2.2 National Air Quality Legislation........................................................... 8 » 2.3 Clean Air Strategy................................................................................... 9 » 2.4 European Air Quality Policy and Directives...................................... 9 » 2.5 National Air Quality Guidance.............................................................. 11 » 2.6 Smoky Coal............................................................................................... 11 3. AIR QUALITY MONITORING IN CORK CITY......................................................13 » 3.1 National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network......................... 13 » 3.2 Monitoring Programme.......................................................................... 15 » 3.3 District Level Air Quality Monitoring Network................................. 16 » 3.4 Monitoring Parameters........................................................................... 17 4. AIR QUALITY OBJECTIVES and ACTION THEMES..........................................18 » 4.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 18 » 4.2 Theme 1: Health and Wellbeing............................................................ 19 » 4.3 Theme 2: Air Quality Monitoring.......................................................... 20 » 4.4 Theme 3: Travel........................................................................................ 21 » 4.5 Theme 4: Electric Vehicles and Charging Infrastructure. .............. 26 » 4.6 Theme 5: Regulation and Enforcement.............................................. 27 » 4.7 Theme 6: Green Infrastructure............................................................. 28 » 4.8 Theme 7: Research and Innovation..................................................... 29 5. IMPLEMENTATION, MONITORING AND EVALUATION..................................30 » 5.1 Implementation ....................................................................................... 30 » 5.2 Monitoring ................................................................................................ 31 » 5.3 Evaluation ................................................................................................. 31 » 5.4 Objectives and Action Themes............................................................ 31 » 5.4.1 Theme 1: Health and Wellbeing................................................................... 32 » 5.4.2 Theme 2: Air Quality Monitoring................................................................ 33 » 5.4.3 Theme 3: Travel................................................................................................. 34 » 5.4.4 Theme 4: Electric Vehicles and Charging Infrastructure................... 39 » 5.4.5 Theme 5: Regulation and Enforcement...................................................40 » 5.4.6 Theme 6: Green and Blue Infrastructure.................................................42 » 5.4.7 Theme 7: Research and Innovation...........................................................44

References. .................................................................................................................43

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This Air Quality Strategy for Cork City outlines the actions that Cork City Council will undertake between 2021 and 2026 to reduce the concentrations of air pollutants in the city area; thereby positively impacting on the health and quality of life of residents and visitors. The air that we breathe has significant impacts on our health and well-being. Long-term exposure to high levels of air pollution can severely weaken immune systems and exacerbate pre-existing respiratory conditions such as asthma and negatively affect lung and heart function. In a recent report by the Irish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2020), over 1,300 premature deaths per annum are attributable to poor air quality in Ireland. There are numerous sources of air pollution in Cork City. They include exhaust fumes from vehicle combustion engines, emissions from residences, as well as emissions from industry and agriculture. There are certain pollutants that are recognized as being responsible for the majority of air pollution issues within the city. These include Nitrogen oxides (NO X ), Particulate Matter (PM), Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2 ) and Tropospheric or Ground Level Ozone (O 3 ). This Air Quality Strategy builds on significant work being conducted by Cork City Council to develop a high level air quality monitoring system and to develop initiatives designed to lower the levels of pollutants in the air throughout the city. Implementation of this Air Quality Strategy will involve inputs from numerous departments within the City Council as well as contributions from external stakeholders.

The actions set out to deliver the strategy have been separated into seven themes: 1. Health and Wellbeing 2. Air Quality Monitoring 3. Travel 4. Electric Vehicles and Charging Infrastructure 5. Regulation and Enforcement 6. Green Infrastructure 7. Research and Innovation.

Cork City Council has established structures to oversee the implementation of this Air Quality Strategy involving the elected members of Cork City Council and the Strategic Policy Committee for the Environment; and at the Executive level the Senior Management Team as well as a specialist Air Quality Team shall be the main drivers. The strategy will be reviewed every five years and progress on measures to improve air quality set out in this strategy will be outlined in an Annual Air Quality Report.

1. INTRODUCTION

This Air Quality Strategy for Cork City outlines the actions that Cork City Council will undertake between 2021 and 2026 to reduce the concentrations of air pollutants in the city area; thereby positively impacting on the health and quality of life of residents and visitors. This Strategy builds on significant work being conducted by Cork City Council to develop a high-quality air monitoring system and to develop initiatives that will significantly lower the levels of pollutants in the air throughout the city. The strategy will be reviewed every five years and progress on measures to improve air quality set out in this strategy will be reported annually in an Annual Air Quality Report. Context Air pollution from both outdoor and indoor sources represents the single largest environmental risk to health globally. The air that we breathe has significant impacts on our health and well-being. The effects of poor air quality have been strongly felt in urban areas by contributing adversely to public health, and in ecosystems where poor air quality harms biodiversity and vegetation growth [1]. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that more than six million premature deaths were caused by air pollution exposure in 2012 [2, 3]. In a recent report by the Irish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), over 1,300 premature deaths were attributed to poor air quality [3a]. 1.1 Diesel engine exhaust emissions, outdoor air pollution and particulate matter have all been classified by the WHO as carcinogenic to humans [4, 5]. The enormous burden of disease due to air pollution is increasingly being recognised by governments and institutions around the globe as a major public health concern. Clean air is, therefore, vital for public health. Scope of the Strategy Implementation of this Air Quality Strategy will involve the input of numerous departments within the City Council as well as contributions from external stakeholders. The actions set out to deliver the strategy have been separated into seven themes, namely; 1.2

» Health and Wellbeing » Air Quality Monitoring » Travel » Electric Vehicles and Charging Infrastructure » Regulation and Enforcement » Green Infrastructure » Research and Innovation.

1.3 Collaboration with Stakeholders Cork City Council will work with numerous external stakeholders to develop and activate this strategy to ensure that it has the widest available expertise. Stakeholders will include: residents’ groups, workers’ groups, schools, businesses, relevant government departments, the ESB, the Environmental Protection Agency, University College Cork (UCC), Munster Technological University (MTU), Healthy Cities Ireland to name but a few.

Introduction

1.4 Sources of Air Pollution in Cork City There are numerous sources of air pollution in Cork City. They include exhaust fumes from vehicle combustion engines (cars, vans, Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGVs), motor bikes, buses, tractors, etc.); emissions from residences (burning of fuels, specifically solid fuel burning in open fires and stoves); emissions from industry (factory chimneys, heating systems) and emissions from agriculture. There are certain pollutants that are recognized as being responsible for the majority of air pollution issues within the city as outlined in Figure 1.1. The significance of these air pollutants are further explained in the following sections. AIR POLLUTION IN IRELAND

MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS

KEY AIR POLLUTANT SOURCES

Nitric oxide (NO)

O 3

SO 2

Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 )

Particulate Matter

Oxides of Nitrogen - NOx

Ozone

Sulphur Dioxide

Residential

Transport

Industry

Commercial

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons PAHs

NH 3

Volatile Organic Compounds VOC

Agriculture

Power

Waste

Natural

Ammonia

Carbon Monoxide

* please note that the order of pollutant or

pollutant sources is not a reflection of their quantity or level of impact

CO 2

Methane Greenhouse gases (GHGs) CH 4

Nitrous Oxide N 2 0

HFCs

Shipping

Aircra

Hydrofluorocarbons

Carbon Dioxide

Figure 1 .1 Air Pollution in Ireland Infographic (Source: Reference [1]) TRANSFORMATION AND MOVEMENT OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Air pollutants can react in the atmosphere to form new pollutants

Air Pollution affects local areas but also travels with wind and rain to have an impact on a local, regional and global scale.

Sunshine + Nitrogen Oxides + Volatile Organics = Ozone

1.4.1 Nitrogen Oxides (NO X ) Nitrogen oxides – or NO X – include the two pollutant gases nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ). These are pollutants that are emitted in ambient air when petrol or diesel is burned in internal combustion engines. Power-generation plants and motor vehicles are the principal sources of NO X . Diesel engine vehicles produce more NO 2 than petrol vehicles. Other sources of NO 2 in Ireland include non- road mobile machinery (for example, JCBs and ride-on lawnmowers), industrial and construction activities as well as electricity and heat production equipment. NO X contributes to the formation of acid rain and is also a recognised ozone precursor (i.e. a chemical compound, which in the presence of solar radiation reacts with other chemical compounds like carbon monoxide and ammonium to form ozone). Short-term exposure to NO 2 is associated with reduced lung function and airway responsiveness and increased reactivity to natural allergens. Long-term exposure is associated with increased risk of respiratory infection in children. Nitrogen Dioxide is known to irritate the lungs and lowers resistance to respiratory infection, especially for those already suffering with breathing difficulties e.g. asthma, bronchitis. The Asthma Society of Ireland has estimated that 380,000 (i.e. 1 in 13) people currently suffer from asthma in Ireland and asthma affects 1 in 5 Irish children at some stage [6]. 1.4.2 Particulate Matter (PM 1 , PM 2.5 and PM 10 ) Particulate Matter (PM) comes in the form PM 1 , PM 2.5 and PM 10 . They are tiny particles in the air that can penetrate deep into the respiratory tract, moving from the lungs into the blood stream. Inhalation of these particles can increase the risk, frequency and severity of respiratory and cardiopulmonary disorders. The main sources of particulate matter are the combustion of solid fuels and road traffic emissions, in particular from diesel engines.  Headaches, Anxiety (SO 2 )  Central nervous system impact and stroke (PM)  ENT (Ear, Nose & Throat) irritation and breathing difficulties (O 3 , PM, NO 2 , SO 2 , PAHs)  Cardiovascular disease (O 3 , PM, SO 2 )  Asthma and reduced lung function (PM, O 3 )  Lung cancer (PAHs)  Impacts on liver, spleen and blood (NO 2 )  Impacts on reproductive system (PM)  Low birth weight, premature birth (PM) premature deaths per annum attributable to ambient air pollution in Ireland, with total health costs (mortality and morbidity) in excess of €2bn per annum.” = 10 premature Deaths Accepted Health Impacts List SUMMARY COSTS/IMPACTS “WHO (2015) estimate around 700 Ozone high in the stratosphere protects us from harmful UV rays, but ozone created at ground level due to other pollutants can have detrimental impacts on health, vegetation and crops Ammonia as a gas can combine with other gases such as sulphur dioxide to form solid particulates 2NH 3 + SO 2 = Secondary PM + + = + = NO x VOC O 3 NH 3 NH 3 SO 2 PM HEALTH IMPACTS

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Crop Yields

Water Systems

Species diversity

Buildings & Materials

Forests

Odour

MANAGING AIR POLLUTION IN IRELAND

Introduction

Other particulates include dust from roads, industrial emissions and natural substances such as windblown sea salt. PM 1 represents a quantity of particulate matter that is 1 micron or less in diameter. PM 2.5 signifies particulate matter of 2.5 microns or less in diameter (more than 100 times thinner than a human hair) and PM 10 signifies that the diameter of the particulate matter is 10 microns or less. In Ireland the main source – especially of the smaller and more dangerous PM 1 and PM 2.5 particles – is solid fuel burning for home heating. 1.4.3 Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2 ) Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2 ) is released when fuel (mainly coal and oil) containing sulphur is burned at power generating plants, released as a by-product of industrial processes or released from exhaust flues from home heating systems. High concentrations of SO 2 can result in temporary breathing impairment for asthmatics that are active outdoors. Other effects that have been associated with longer-term exposures to high concentrations of SO 2 , in conjunction with high levels of particulate matter, include aggravation of existing cardiovascular disease, respiratory illness and alterations in the lungs’ defences. Together, SO 2 and NO X are the major precursors to acidic deposition (acid rain), which is associated with the acidification of soils, lakes and streams and the accelerated corrosion of buildings and monuments. 1.4.4 Ozone (O 3 ) Ozone is a natural component of the atmosphere. Most ozone is found high up in the stratosphere, the layer of the atmosphere between 12km and 50km above sea level. Ozone is also found in the troposphere, the layer of the atmosphere next to the earth. Tropospheric, or ground level ozone, is not emitted directly into the air, but is created by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NO X ) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This occurs when pollutants emitted by cars, power plants, industrial boilers, refineries, chemical plants, and other sources chemically react in the presence of sunlight. Ozone is most likely to reach unhealthy levels on hot sunny days in urban environments, but it can still reach high levels during colder months. Ozone can also be transported long distances by wind, so even rural areas can experience high ozone levels. Breathing ozone can trigger a variety of health problems including chest pain, coughing, throat irritation, and airway inflammation. Long term exposure to moderate concentrations causes a reduction in lung capacity and can worsen heart disease, bronchitis, emphysema and asthma. Trophospheric ozone contributes to the greenhouse effect and subsequent global climate change. 1.4.5 Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH). The main source of atmospheric BaP is residential wood burning. It is also found in coal tar, in vehicle exhaust fumes (especially from diesel engines), in all smoke resulting from the combustion of organic material (including cigarette smoke) and in charbroiled food. It is part of the group of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and is recognized as one of the most carcinogenic of the group. Health Impacts of Air Pollution Long-term exposure to high levels of pollution can severely weaken immune systems. Air pollution can exacerbate pre-existing respiratory conditions such as asthma and negatively affect lung and heart function. 1.5 Short-term exposure mainly affects people who are already classed as ‘vulnerable’; i.e. individuals with pre-existing conditions that are aggravated by air pollutants. Children and the elderly can also be vulnerable in the short-term if they are exposed to high levels of air pollution. Air pollutants can cause a range of physiological effects, namely (see Figure 1.2); » Ultrafine particles can pass from the lungs into the blood stream and may cause many adverse outcomes including systemic inflammation.

Introduction

» They can trigger events such as cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality and non-fatal myocardial infarctions. » Long term exposure can lead to the development of respiratory disease and CVD. » Early exposure to air pollution can damage the lungs, and increase the risk of lung infections that may be fatal. » Some pollutants, when breathed in by the mother, can cross through the placenta to the developing baby. Particulates and heavy metals are two such examples. » Air pollution can affect growth of the unborn baby and may be linked to premature birth. » There may be additional effects on growth, intelligence, onset of asthma, and development of the brain and coordination. It should be noted that air pollution affects all members of society, and not just those with pre-existing respiratory diseases. However, air pollution has a disproportionate impact on the young and the old, the sick and the poor [7], and pregnant women [8]. Energy poverty is a key driver of the combustion of low-quality solid fuels, such as coal and wood for domestic heating [9, 10]. This leads to high exposure of the low-income population to particulate matter and PAHs from both indoor and outdoor sources.

Irritation of eyes, nose and throat Breathing problems (O 3 , PM, NO 2 , SO 2 , BaP)

Headache and anxiety (SO 2 ) Impacts on the central nervous system (PM)

Impacts on the respiratory system: Irritation, inflammation and infections Asthma and reduced lung function Chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease (PM) Lung cancer (PM, BaP)

Cardiovascular diseases (PM, O 3 , SO 2 )

Impacts on liver, spleen and blood (NO 2 )

Impacts on the reproductive system (PM)

Figure 1.2

Summary of Health Impacts of Air Pollution: (Source: Reference [3a])

1.5.1 Air Pollution and Disease There is growing evidence that air quality is a risk factor in the development and exacerbation of disease. Recent research in Ireland, led by researchers from the RCSI University of Medicine and Health Sciences, has linked short-term exposure to air pollution with an increased prevalence of brain stroke. During winter the fine particles from burning of coal and wood leads to the suspension of dust particles in the air. Researchers found that there was a statistically significant rise in the number of hospitalisations for strokes in zero to two days after a rise in air pollution in the greater Dublin area [11]. The researchers also found that higher levels of nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide were associated with a 3.5% higher risk of stroke. Higher levels of coarse particles correlated with a 3.2% higher risk, and finer particles correlated with a 2.4% higher risk.

Introduction

The Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Report on Irish Air Quality 2019 stated that 1,300 deaths per year were due to poor air quality. In addition, estimates indicate that air pollution has health-related costs in Ireland of over €2 billion per year; including the loss of 382,000 workdays per year [12]. The Air Quality in Europe 2020 Report [8] estimates of the health impacts of exposure to air pollution indicate that, in 2018, long-term exposure to PM 2.5 in Europe (including 41 countries) was responsible for approximately 417,000 premature deaths. Of these, around 379,000 were in the EU-28. It is estimated that in the EU-28 (now 27) countries, exposure to NO 2 and O 3 concentrations on the population has resulted in approximately 54,000 and 19,400 premature deaths per year, respectively (note: this study was conducted prior to the UK exist from the European Union). These health impacts result in direct economic costs and are estimated by the WHO to be in the region of US$1.6 trillion in Europe, and for Ireland around 1.3% of GDP or US$2.5bn per year. 1.5.2 Air Pollution and COVID-19 The SARS-CoV-2 virus (commonly referred to as COVID-19) has caused the deaths of over 4 million people across the world; including over 5,000 Irish citizens. It has also had a devastating effect on the global economy; causing businesses to shut down and depriving millions of people of their livelihoods. Scientists have been investigating the underlying causes of this viral growth in a bid to determine why certain areas have been hit harder than others. There is growing evidence of a strong link between air pollution levels and Covid-19 infection rates. Recent research [13] has investigated the effect that air pollution has on the causes of obstructive lung diseases though damage caused to airway cilia (hair-like protrusions that move microbes and debris up and out of the airways). The researchers highlighted the important role that these airway cilia have in protecting the lungs from harmful emissions. These airway cilia and secretory cells constitute the first line of defence for lungs against diseases. The airway cilia are essential to protect the lungs from diseases caused by environmental pollutants (e.g. NO, NO 2 , SO 2 , and O 3 ). Secretory cells produce gel-forming mucins to entrap inhaled particles and airway cilia help transport them out of the lung. Research published in 2020 has also questioned whether atmospheric pollution could be considered a co-factor in the extremely high level of death rates due to COVID-19 in northern Italy. The research [14] focused on the Lombardy and Emilia Romagna regions of the country; two areas that were hit hardest by the virus. These regions are one of Europe’s most polluted areas as a consequence of geography, urban and industrial emissions. The researchers concluded that prolonged exposure to air pollution leads to a chronic inflammatory stimulus, even in the young and healthy. The research report concluded that the higher prevalence and lethality of a virus such as COVID-19 may be explained by the population living in areas experiencing chronic exposure to air pollution, thus causing the cilia and upper airways defences to have been weakened [14]. Researchers from the University of Birmingham and the University of Bern also found “compelling evidence” of a link between air quality and the rate of virus uptake. The research indicated that an increase in PM 2.5 concentrations (more than 100 times thinner than a human hair) of 1 μ g/m 3 is associated with up to 21% more deaths attributable to Covid-19 coupled with a sizeable increase in hospital admissions [15]. 1.6 Economic Impacts Recent work by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) [16] suggests that increases in air pollution cause substantial reductions in economic activity. The dataset combines satellite- based measures of PM 2.5 concentrations (the pollutant with the largest estimated impacts on mortality and health outcomes, used as an indicator of general exposure to air pollution by the WHO) with statistics on gross domestic product for all regions across the European Union between 2000 and 2015. The results show that air pollution adversely affects economic activity substantially. The mean particulate matter concentration in the sample period was 15 μ g/m 3 . The research found that a 1 μ g/m 3 increase in the average annual concentration of PM 2.5 causes a short-run reduction in economic activity, as measured by real gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, of between 0.5% and 1.5%. This implies that a 10% reduction in PM 2.5 average concentration across Europe would increase European GDP by approximately €100 - 200 billion. On a per capita basis, this works out at €200 - 400 per person per year.

Introduction

The impact of high air pollution levels differed across sectors, with the agricultural and construction sectors being the most severely affected. There was however, affects experienced in both rural and urban areas [16]. The findings suggest that much stronger air quality regulations can significantly contribute to economic growth and can usefully complement other mainstream structural policies.

1.7 Environmental Impacts Air pollution has a significant impact on the environment, for example, when washed out of the atmosphere by rain or otherwise, it can have immediate and longer term impacts on biodiversity, water quality and the wider ecosystems services that the environment provides. Historic reductions of sulphur emissions have reduced the threat from ‘acid rain’, though nitrogen deposition continues to affect plant communities, impacting on sensitive species and biodiversity. This can have knock-on consequences for example, on insect and birdlife and can create favourable conditions for plants and insects that cause allergies or disease, and can contribute to an increase in the occurrence of algal blooms. Ozone which is produced in the atmosphere from certain air pollutants is an aggressive gas which damages plants and can significantly reduce crop productivity yields.

2. LEGISLATIVE AND POLICY FRAMEWORK

2.1 Introduction Sources of air pollution emissions occur across all sectors of the economy. Many of these pollutants are also sources of greenhouse gas emissions. As a result; actions taken to address air pollution and climate change can have a mutually reinforcing effect. In addition, recent scientific assessments have highlighted the links between certain air pollutants known as Short Lived Climate Pollutants (SLCPs) that also have a warming effect on the climate. SLCPs include black carbon (BC), methane (CH 4 ) and tropospheric ozone (O 3 ) and have detrimental impacts on human health, agriculture and ecosystems. The primary approach to air pollution control to date has been by regulation, though fiscal measures have also played an important role in reducing air pollution in the past. For example, an excise tax differential was introduced for leaded petrol which brought about a widespread move to lead-free fuel ahead of the EU wide regulatory ban on leaded petrol in 2000. Such measures can continue to play an important role in the transition to cleaner fuels which will be required as we take the necessary steps to move towards meeting tighter health-based World Health Organisation (WHO) air quality guideline values, and a low carbon sustainable society. The issue of indoor air quality is increasingly recognised as an important aspect of exposure to air pollution, as we spend as much as 90% of our time indoors. Ireland has shown international leadership on this issue when the then Minister for Health introduced the ban on smoking in indoor workplaces in 2004 to address a significant source of indoor air pollution. However, other threats arise from other indoor sources; for example, research across the EU has found elevated levels of toxic air pollutants indoors where stoves and open fires are used. There is also evidence of poorer health outcomes, particularly for vulnerable groups, for those living in houses where coal is used for heating. 2.2 National Air Quality Legislation The Air Pollution Act, 1987 is the primary basis for national air quality legislation in Ireland. The Act sets out the statutory definition of air pollution and contains a general obligation to prohibit air pollution along with powers to prevent it. The powers of the Act are devolved to individual local authorities; providing them with a range of regulatory options with which they can enforce emissions standards. Responsibility for the regulation of emissions from large, industrial sources rests with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Smaller sources of emissions are regulated by local authorities under Section 30 of the Act. The Act also provides the Minister for the Environment with powers to make regulations in relation to fuel quality which have been instrumental in tackling ‘smog’ from residential ‘smoky’ coal in our larger cities and towns. The prohibition on the sale and distribution of ‘Smoky Coal’ has successfully improved public health where the ban has been applied. The Air Pollution Act was amended in 2015; with the introduction of fixed penalty notices for a range of offences and broadened the areas included in low smoke zones. Councils can issue an on the spot fine for alleged offences relating to the marketing, sale and distribution of prohibited fuels in Low Smoke Zones (LSZs), with a penalty range of €250 to €1000.

Legislative and policy framework

2.3 Clean Air Strategy The Government is currently developing Ireland’s first National Clean Air Strategy. This Strategy will provide the framework for a set of cross-Government policies and actions to reduce harmful emissions and improve air quality and public health to meet current and future EU and international obligations. The development of a specific framework of goals and targets will enable the Government to better align its climate and pollution policies in conjunction with the scientific data. Cork City Council will be cognisant of ongoing regulatory changes and will take the lead from the agreed National Strategy. Ireland’s draft Clean Air Strategy is available on the Department of Communications, Climate Action and Environment website https://www.gov.ie/en/consultation/0b94e-national-clean-air-strategy-consultation/ 2.4 European Air Quality Policy and Directives EU legislation has developed over the last number of decades to set complementary legislation to bring about a reduction of emissions of air pollutants into the atmosphere, and limit the maximum concentrations for certain pollutants in the ambient air around us. The National Emissions Ceilings Directive (2001/81/EC) set emission reduction targets for defined air pollution parameters at EU and national level, as well as at source level with, for example, standards for road vehicles and industrial installations which were set on a prioritised basis. The Directive set national limits to be achieved since 2010, for four ‘classic’ air pollutants, namely; » oxides of nitrogen (NO X ) » sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) » volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and » ammonia (NH 3 ). Emissions of these pollutants have generally fallen significantly since the Directive was introduced in 2001, except for ammonia which has remained more or less stable over the early part of the 2000s when the Directive came into force, then falling around 6% broadly in line with a fall in the national livestock herd. However, emissions of ammonia are now forecast to increase in line with national plans for expansion within the agriculture sector. In contrast, over the same period, SO 2 emissions have decreased by 86%, NO X emissions by 45% and VOCs by 22%. Ireland has complied to date with the ceilings set for three of the pollutants, but reported emissions of NO X have remained above the 2010 emission ceiling. The first major instrument was the Air Quality Framework Directive 96/62/EC and its daughter Directives, which established standards for a range of pollutants including ozone, particulate matter (PM 10 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), in the period up to 2004. As part of the 2005 Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution, the EU Commission proposed to consolidate the Framework Directive and the first three daughter directives into a single Ambient Air Quality Directive, adopted as 2008/50/EC , and to set objectives for fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ). Together with the fourth daughter Directive 2004/107/EC , the Ambient Air Quality Directive provides the current framework for the control of ambient concentrations of air pollution in the EU. » Directive 2004/107/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council (Fourth Daughter Directive)

relates to: • arsenic

• cadmium • mercury • nickel • polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air.

» Directive 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe includes the following elements: • The merging of most of the existing legislation into a single directive (except for the Fourth Daughter Directive) with no change to existing air quality objectives • New air quality objectives for PM 2.5 including the limit value and exposure related objectives • The possibility to discount natural sources of pollution when assessing compliance against limit values • The possibility for time extensions of three years (PM 10 ) or up to five years (NO 2 , benzene) for complying with limit values.

Legislative and policy framework

» Directive 2015/1480/EC of 28th August 2015 amends several annexes to Directives 2004/107/EC and 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down the rules concerning: • reference methods • data validation • the location of sampling points for the assessment of ambient air quality. Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and the Council on industrial emissions is the main EU instrument regulating pollutant emissions from industrial installations. The Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) aims to achieve a high level of protection of human health and the environment taken as a whole by reducing harmful industrial emissions across the EU, in particular through better application of Best Available Techniques (BAT). The IED was adopted on 24th November 2010 and entered into force on 6th January 2011 and had to be transposed by Member States by 7th January 2013. The IED is based on several pillars: 1. an integrated approach, 2. use of best available techniques, 3. flexibility, 4. inspections, and 5. public participation. » Commission Implementing Decision 2011/850/EU lays down rules for Directives 2004/107/EC and 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards the reciprocal exchange of information and reporting on ambient air quality (notified under document C(2011) 9068). » The Clean Air for Europe Directive, (CAFE, 2008/50/EC) , details the legislative requirements of member states with regards to assessment of air quality across air quality zones. Within Ireland, there are four air quality assessment zones: A (Dublin) B (Cork) C (cities / towns >15,000) D (remainder of the country). The Clean Air Package The EU Clean Air Package was launched in 2013 following a comprehensive review of existing EU air policy. The policies and legislative proposals contained within it are designed to update and modernize EU clean air legislation to better reflect improved scientific knowledge and understanding of the health and environmental impacts of air pollution. The main components of this policy package include: » A new Clean Air Programme for Europe with measures to ensure that existing targets are met in the short-term and sets out new air quality objectives for the period up to 2030. The package also includes support measures to help cut air pollution, with a focus on improving air quality in cities, supporting research and innovation, and promoting international cooperation. » A revised National Emission Ceilings Directive with more ambitious and protective national emissions ceiling for key pollutants. » A new Directive to reduce pollution from medium-sized combustion installations, such as energy plants for street blocks or large buildings, and small industry installations. The Clean Air Package is expected to deliver significant benefits across the EU by 2030 including: » the avoidance of 58,000 premature deaths » saving 123,000 km 2 of ecosystems, (including 56,000 km 2 of protected Natura 2000 sites) from nitrogen pollution » saving 19,000 km 2 of forest ecosystems from acidification.

Legislative and policy framework

The main legislative instrument to achieve the 2030 objectives of the Clean Air Programme for Europe is Directive 2016/2284 ; which entered into force on 31st December 2016. This Directive sets national reduction commitments for five pollutants:

1. sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) 2. nitrogen oxides (NO X ) 3. ammonia (NH 3 )

4. volatile organic compounds (VOC) 5. Particulate matter (PM 10 and PM 2.5 ). The aim of this Directive is to set more ambitious emission reduction commitments so as to cut the health impacts of air pollution by half by 2030. 2.5 National Air Quality Guidance The enforcement of clean air legislation is conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the local authorities. The EPA regulates industrial emissions under a range of EU directives including the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) which specifies maximum emission levels for a wide range of industry sectors and specific sources. In addition, the EPA licences waste facilities which are a significant source of public complaint, particularly regarding odours, which is the source of more complaints than any other environmental issue. Local authorities are primarily responsible for the enforcement of legislation on solid fuel and they are assisted by an active national implementation group. The role of local authorities in preventing and combating air pollution includes:

» Monitoring of emissions to the ambient air in the area » Assessing compliance with the relevant legislation » Dealing with complaints with regard to air pollution » Licensing certain categories of industry » Enforcing the ban on the marketing, distribution, sale and burning of certain fuel (usually bituminous (smoky) coal)

» Organising and conducting research into the causes, extent and prevention of air pollution » Establishing and running educational programmes about pollution and its prevention » Supporting or assisting anyone engaged in any research, survey or investigation into the nature and extent, the cause and effect and the prevention or limitation of air pollution. The EPA reviews the performance of local authorities in relation to the enforcement of environmental legislation. 2.6 Smoky Coal The ban on the marketing, sale and distribution of bituminous fuel (or ‘smoky coal ban’) was first introduced in Dublin in 1990 in response to severe episodes of winter smog that resulted from the widespread use of smoky coal for residential heating. The ban proved effective in reducing smoke and sulphur dioxide levels and was then extended to other areas. Research indicates that the ban in Dublin resulted in over 350 fewer annual deaths. An estimate of these benefits in monetary terms put the value at over €20m. Additional benefits of the regulations include many householders switching from solid fuels, which generally are less efficient and more polluting, to more efficient and less polluting gas or oil. The associated reduced fuel costs to consumers are estimated at €184m per year. Cork City followed with a ban in 1995 (see Figure 2.1).

Legislative and policy framework

Low Smoke Zone: Cork City (green); Great Island, Carrigtohill and Midleton (blue) ( Link to DCCAE Map )

Figure 2.1

Where householders continue to rely on solid fuel, there is now a range of innovative low smoke solid fuel products available on the market, including low smoke coal. Low smoke solid fuel is cleaner as well as more carbon and heat efficient. It can deliver climate benefits as well as improved air quality. Air quality monitoring by the EPA has shown lower levels of particulate matter (PM 10 and PM 2.5 ) in Low Smoke Zones than in towns where the ban does not apply. On 1st September 2020 the smoky coal ban was extended to all towns with populations over 10,000 people. At this present time, the government will not be proceeding with a nationwide ban on smoky coal, on the basis that such a ban carries a serious risk of illegality, unless peat, turf and wet wood were also included. Since September 2020, the prohibition on the burning, sale and marketing of smoky coal was extended to the towns listed below:

County

Town

Cavan Cork Kerry

Cavan Town

Cobh, Carrigtohill, Midleton and Mallow

Killarney

Longford

Longford Town Castlebar, Ballina

Mayo Meath Offaly

Ashbourne, Laytown-Bettystown

Tullamore Tramore

Waterford Wexford

Enniscorthy

Recent air quality monitoring in three of these towns (Cobh, Enniscorthy and Longford) has shown that although air quality has met EU requirements, the results have been in exceedance of the stricter WHO air quality standard limits. On this basis, it has been decided that all built-up areas in the country should benefit from a ban. Work is also underway to strengthen enforcement of the current smoky coal ban. Potential options which are being considered include: » The development of a regional approach to air quality and noise enforcement, in line with other areas of environmental enforcement such as waste, which has proven to be very successful » A multi-agency approach to enforcement would have greater impact on issues including the sale of high-sulphur content fuel imported from the UK. The Irish Government is currently actively engaging with Local Authorities and the Revenue Commissioners in this context. The government has also announced that it will invest €5m to improve the existing network of air quality monitoring stations in the next five years. This €5m investment is designed to: » Develop a greatly expanded national monitoring network » Enhance the provision of real-time, localised air quality information to local authorities and to the public » Assist Local Authorities in terms of enforcement within their areas, as well as providing a more accurate nationwide air quality picture for policy makers.

3. AIR QUALITY MONITORING IN CORK CITY

3.1 National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network Cork City Council works in partnership with the Environmental Protection Agency’s National Ambient Air Quality Network to operate its air monitoring system. This network consists of a series of air quality monitoring stations that are located across the country. These stations are termed reference air quality monitoring stations and are used for national reporting purposes. There are four air quality monitoring stations installed across Cork City Council’s functional area that provide live, continuous air quality data, monitoring the levels of parameters such as - Particulate Matter (PM), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO 2 ), Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2 ), Ozone (O 3 ), Benzo (a) Pyrene, Lead, Cadmium, Nickel and Arsenic. The EPA captures parameter data gathered from their monitoring stations and matches it to a defined set of values to create a standardised table of results. This set of values is used to form an Air Quality Index for Health (AQIH). The AQIH allows comparison for different pollutants with an easy to visualize colour scheme which goes from green (good air quality) to purple (poor air quality) and on to maroon (extremely hazardous). The AQIH has 10 points ranging from 1 to 10. These points are divided into four coloured bands:

» good (readings of 1-3), » fair (readings of 4-6), » poor (readings of 7-9), and » very poor (reading of 10).

The higher the number, the poorer the quality of the air. For example, an AQIH reading of 10 means that the air quality is very poor and a reading of 1, 2 or 3 means that the air quality is good. The Air Quality Index for Health is displayed below in Tables 3.1 and 3.2. The AQIH is based on measurements of five air pollutants all of which can harm health. The five pollutants are: » Ozone gas

» Nitrogen dioxide gas » Sulphur dioxide gas » Fine Particulate Matter (PM 2.5 ) particles » Particulate Matter (PM 10 ) particles.

Air quality monitoring in Cork City

Nitrogen Dioxide ( µ g/m³)

Sulphur Dioxide ( µ g/m³)

PM 2.5 ( µ g/m³)

PM 10 ( µ g/m³)

Ozone ( µ g/m³)

Band

Index

8 HOUR MEAN

24 HOUR MEAN

1 HOUR MEAN

0-33

0-67

0-29

0-11

0-16

GOOD AIR QUALITY FAIR AIR QUALITY POOR AIR QUALITY VERY POOR AIR QUALITY

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

34-66 67-100 101-120 121-140 141-160 161-187 188-213 214-240

68-134

30-59 60-89

12-23 24-35 36-41 42-47 58-53 54-58 59-64 65-70

17-33 34-50 51-58 59.66 67-75 76-83 84-91 92-100

135-200 201-267 268-334 335-400 401-467 468-534 535-600

90-119 120-149 150-179 180-236 237-295 296-354

10 241 or more 601 or more 355 or more 71 or more

101 or more

Table 3.1 Air Quality Index for Health (Source EPA Website, https://www.epa.ie/air/quality/index/#d.en.68493)

Accompanying health messages for at-risk groups and the general population

Band

Index

At-risk individuals*

General population

GOOD

2 3 4 5

Enjoy your usual outdoor activities.

Adults and children with lung problems, and adults with heart problems, who experience symptoms, should consider reducing strenuous physical activity, particularly outdoors. Adults and children with lung problems, and adults with heart problems, should reduce strenuous physical activity, particularly outdoors, and particularly if they experience symptoms. People with asthma may find they need to use their reliever inhaler more often. Older people should also reduce physical exertion. Adults and children with lung problems, adults with heart problems, and older people, should avoid strenuous physical activity. People with asthma may find they need to use their reliever inhaler more often.

FAIR

Enjoy your usual outdoor activities.

7 8

Anyone experiencing discomfort such as sore eyes, cough or sore throat should consider reducing activity, particularly outdoors.

POOR

VERY POOR

Reduce physical exertion, particularly outdoors, especially if you experience symptoms such as cough or sore throat.

Explanation of the Air Quality Index for Health (Source: EPA Website, https://www.epa.ie/air/quality/index/#d.en.68493

Table 3.2

Air quality monitoring in Cork City

Calculation of the Air Quality Index for Health The EPA uses the data collected from the automatic air quality monitoring network to measure how much air pollution there is at specific location. This data is measured at a rate of work out by cubic metre (m 3 ) every hour. The index (number) for each pollutant is calculated separately and the overall AQIH is the highest of the five pollutant indices. For example, if there is more ozone than sulphur dioxide, the higher number for the ozone is applied to the overall AQIH. Cork City Local Air Quality Monitoring Network Cork City Council has procured a number of air quality sensors to measure particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) and has installed them at locations across the metropolitan area of Cork city. These sensors use laser particle counters that provide an accurate and low-cost way to measure smoke, dust, and other particulate air pollution. Whilst the sensors have undergone a validation and recalibration process in a collaborative project between Cork City Council and University College Cork, they provide indicative air quality data only and the data displayed should be interpreted alongside the EPA reference sensors mentioned in section 3.2 below. Nitrogen Dioxide Diffusion Tube Survey Diffusion tubes are passive air samplers that consist of small plastic tubes containing a chemical reagent to absorb the specific pollutant to be measured directly from the air. Nitrogen dioxide concentrations often show seasonal variation, so it is recommended that all surveys should be carried out for a minimum of six months, therefore diffusion tube monitoring is typically carried out over an entire year in order to attain an annual mean value. The immediate area around the sampler location must be open, allowing free circulation of air around the tube. Ideally, samplers would be placed at breathing height, but in order to reduce theft of tubes, they are usually placed at a height of 2 to 4m from the ground. Concentrations of NO 2 typically decrease with height above street level, so tubes placed some metres above street level can under-estimate the actual concentrations to which the public are exposed. As far as is practical, all tubes within any given monitoring programme should be placed at similar heights. Diffusion tubes are inexpensive and can be positioned over a wider area to get a greater picture of NO 2 levels within a local area. Results from diffusion tubes have a higher level of uncertainty than concentrations measured using the European Standard Method (CEN) (i.e. the approved standard reference method), and for this reason they are categorised as an ‘indicative’ monitoring technique. A diffusion tube study to measure nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) was conducted in Dublin between 2016 and 2017 and in Cork City between 2019 and 2020. This study was designed to test the feasibility of using diffusion tubes to determine NO 2 concentrations in the air. Indicative NO 2 concentrations were determined using passive diffusion tube samplers throughout this survey. The results of the Cork City survey will be made available to the public in 2021. 3.2 Monitoring Programme There are 4 ‘reference level’ air quality monitoring stations installed across Cork City Council’s functional area that provide live, continuous air quality data. These stations are termed reference air quality monitoring stations and are used by the EPA for national reporting purposes. The stations are located at:

» Heatherton Park » South Link Road » University College Cork (UCC), Distillery Fields, North Mall Campus » Munster Technological University (MTU).

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